Toxoplasma DNA, PCr Tips

A miscarriage can have adverse effects on both physical and emotional health. The impact of one such event can last for a very long time and harm your social behavior and thus, relationships. It is important to understand that in most cases, it is no one's fault. A number of things can go wrong naturally during the development of the fetus and so, the feelings of guilt, shame and anger are best avoided. Here are the common causes responsible for miscarriages:

1. Chromosomal defects: Chromosomal abnormalities are responsible for more than half of the miscarriages around the world. The development conditions like Turner syndrome, cystic fibrosis, Down syndrome etc. can be detected by the system and upon detection, the system often chooses to shut itself down leading to a miscarriage. If the cause of the miscarriage is identified as a chromosomal flaw, then a maternal and fetal specialist or a genetic counsellor can help solve the problem.
2. Diabetes: Pregnant women develop high levels of blood sugar even if they did not have diabetes mellitus in the past. This condition is known as Gestational diabetes mellitus. It occurs primarily due the changes in the regular hormonal cycles and secretion of pregnancy hormones and can result in a variety of complications, the most severe one being a miscarriage. A miscarriage may also be caused by a chronic diabetic condition.
3. Thyroid conditions: Both hypothyroidism (low production of thyroid hormones) and hyperthyroidism (high production of thyroid hormones) can be responsible for miscarriages. In case of hypothyroidism, the body produces more of the other hormones in order to make up for the deficiency and this interferes with the reproductive cycle. In case of hypothyroidism, the functionality of the estrogen hormone is compromised due to the over production of other hormones.
4. Separation of the sperm DNA: The sperm DNA is divided or separated due to a number of possible reasons like radiation therapy, chemotherapy, smoking, overexposure to heat etc. and it does not fertilize the egg properly i.e. the DNA is not delivered efficiently. The eggs can sometimes repair the damage in the DNA but this does not happen, a miscarriage is the likely outcome. The condition in males can be treated depending on the reason for the damage in the sperm.

A miscarriage can have adverse effects on both physical and emotional health. The impact of one such event can last for a very long time and harm your social behavior and thus, relationships. It is important to understand that in most cases, it is no one's fault. A number of things can go wrong naturally during the development of the fetus and so, the feelings of guilt, shame and anger are best avoided.

Here are the common causes responsible for miscarriages:

1. Chromosomal defects: Chromosomal abnormalities are responsible for more than half of the miscarriages around the world. The development conditions like Turner syndrome, cystic fibrosis, Down syndrome etc. can be detected by the system and upon detection, the system often chooses to shut itself down leading to a miscarriage. If the cause of the miscarriage is identified as a chromosomal flaw, then a maternal and fetal specialist or a genetic counselor can help solve the problem.
2. Diabetes: Pregnant women develop high levels of blood sugar even if they did not have diabetes mellitus in the past. This condition is known as Gestational diabetes mellitus. It occurs primarily due the changes in the regular hormonal cycles and secretion of pregnancy hormones and can result in a variety of complications, the most severe one being a miscarriage. A miscarriage may also be caused by a chronic diabetic condition.
3. Thyroid conditions: Both hypothyroidism (low production of thyroid hormones) and hyperthyroidism (high production of thyroid hormones) can be responsible for miscarriages. In case of hypothyroidism, the body produces more of the other hormones in order to make up for the deficiency and this interferes with the reproductive cycle. In case of hypothyroidism, the functionality of the estrogen hormone is compromised due to the over production of other hormones.
4. Separation of the sperm DNA: he sperm DNA is divided or separated due to a number of possible reasons like radiation therapy, chemotherapy, smoking, overexposure to heat etc. and it does not fertilize the egg properly i.e. the DNA is not delivered efficiently. The eggs can sometimes repair the damage in the DNA but this does not happen, a miscarriage is the likely outcome. The condition in males can be treated depending on the reason for the damage in the sperm.

In case you have a concern or query you can always consult an expert & get answers to your questions!

A miscarriage can have adverse effects on both physical and emotional health. The impact of one such event can last for a very long time and harm your social behavior and thus, relationships. It is important to understand that in most cases, it is no one's fault. A number of things can go wrong naturally during the development of the fetus and so, the feelings of guilt, shame and anger are best avoided. Here are the common causes responsible for miscarriages:

1. Chromosomal defects: Chromosomal abnormalities are responsible for more than half of the miscarriages around the world. The development conditions like Turner syndrome, cystic fibrosis, Down syndrome etc. can be detected by the system and upon detection, the system often chooses to shut itself down leading to a miscarriage. If the cause of the miscarriage is identified as a chromosomal flaw, then a maternal and fetal specialist or a genetic counsellor can help solve the problem.
2. Diabetes: Pregnant women develop high levels of blood sugar even if they did not have diabetes mellitus in the past. This condition is known as Gestational diabetes mellitus. It occurs primarily due the changes in the regular hormonal cycles and secretion of pregnancy hormones and can result in a variety of complications, the most severe one being a miscarriage. A miscarriage may also be caused by a chronic diabetic condition.
3. Thyroid conditions: Both hypothyroidism (low production of thyroid hormones) and hyperthyroidism (high production of thyroid hormones) can be responsible for miscarriages. In case of hypothyroidism, the body produces more of the other hormones in order to make up for the deficiency and this interferes with the reproductive cycle. In case of hypothyroidism, the functionality of the estrogen hormone is compromised due to the over production of other hormones.
4. Separation of the sperm DNA: The sperm DNA is divided or separated due to a number of possible reasons like radiation therapy, chemotherapy, smoking, overexposure to heat etc. and it does not fertilize the egg properly i.e. the DNA is not delivered efficiently. The eggs can sometimes repair the damage in the DNA but this does not happen, a miscarriage is the likely outcome. The condition in males can be treated depending on the reason for the damage in the sperm.

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a subgroup of retrovirus (lentivirus) that causes HIV infection. After a period of time, this infection leads to what is called acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).

Epidemiology

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), from 2010-2015, the estimated rate of HIV infection in all 50 US states decreased from 14.2 per 100,000 population in 2010 to 12.3 per 100,000 population in 2015. In 2015, 39,513 individuals were diagnosed with HIV infection. From 2010 to 2014, the annual number of new HIV infections decreased by 9%.

Virology HIV-1 and HIV-2 are retroviruses in the Retroviridae family, Lentivirus genus. They are enveloped, diploid, single-stranded RNA viruses with a DNA intermediate. Upon entry into the target cell, the viral RNA genome is converted into double-stranded DNA by an enzyme, reverse transcriptase that is transported along with the viral genome in the virus particle. The resulting viral DNA is then imported into the cell nucleus and integrated into the cellular DNA by a virally encoded enzyme, integrase. HIV contains three retroviral genes, namely gag, pol, and env.

• Gag gene: Encodes group-specific antigen; the inner structural proteins
• Pol gene: Encodes polymerase; it also contains integrase and protease
• Env gene: Encodes the viral envelope, the outer structural proteins responsible for cell-type specificity. Glycoprotein 120, the viral envelope protein, binds to the host CD4+molecule

Pathophysiology

HIV infects vital cells in the human immune system, such as helper T cells (specifically CD4+ T cells), macrophages, and dendritic cells and leads to cellular immune deficiency. This results in the development of opportunistic infections and neoplastic processes.

Mode of Transmission
Sexual intercourse: Unprotected sexual intercourse; especially receptive anal intercourse and different sexual partnersContact with or transfer of blood, pre-ejaculate, semen, and vaginal fluids infected with the virus. Spread from an infected mother to her infant through breast milk. An HIV-positive mother can transmit HIV to her baby both during pregnancy and childbirth due to exposure to her blood or vaginal fluid.

Signs and Symptoms There are 3 categories of infection

• Category A: Asymptomatic HIV infection without a history of symptoms or AIDS-defining conditions
• Category B: HIV infection with symptoms that are directly attributable to HIV infection
• Category C: HIV infection with AIDS-defining opportunistic infections

Investigation

A high-sensitivity enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) should be used for screening.

Management

• Start with antiretroviral therapy (ART) in all HIV-infected adults ready to start therapy.
• CD4 count is no longer a criterion for starting the therapy.
• Use of nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors and protease inhibitors.
• For refractory cases, during the failing treatment regimen and before switching therapy, use rapid confirmation, perform resistance testing and reevaluate.

Breast cancer begins when cells in the breast start to get out of control. These cells are mostly in the form of a tumor that can be regularly seen on an x-ray or felt as a lump. The tumor is dangerous (malignant) if the cells attack the surrounding tissues or spread to far off zones in the body. Breast cancer happens mostly in women, yet men can get it, as well.

This is how breast cancer can spread:

• Bosom cancer can spread through the lymph framework
• The lymph framework includes lymph nodes, lymph vessels, and lymph liquid found all throughout the body
• Lymph nodes are little, bean-shaped accumulations of immune system cells that are connected by lymph (or lymphatic) vessels. Lymph vessels resemble little veins, with the exception of that they transport a liquid called lymph (rather than blood) far from the breast
• Lymph contains tissue liquid, waste items, and immune system cells. Breast cancer cells can enter lymph vessels and start to develop into lymph nodes

A large portion of the lymph vessels of the breast deplete into the:

• Lymph nodes under the arm (axillary hubs)
• Lymph nodes around the neck bone (supraclavicular and infraclavicular lymph hubs)
• Lymph nodes inside the neck close to the breast bone (inner mammary lymph hubs)

Following are some of the causes of breast cancer:

• Hormones play a part in creating breast cancer disease; however exactly how this happens is not completely known
• Ordinary breast cells get to be distinctly carcinogenic in view of changes (transformations) in DNA
• Yet, most DNA changes identified with breast cancer are gained in breast cells during a woman’s life as opposed to having been acquired
• Qualities that accelerate cell division are called oncogenes
• Tumor silencer qualities are typical qualities that back off cell division, repair DNA oversights, or advise cells when to bite the dust
• Certain acquired DNA transformations (changes) can drastically increase chances for building up specific growths and are in charge of a large number of tumors that keep running in few families

Some of the treatments of breast cancer include:

• Health alterations: Body weight, physical action, and eating routine are all connected to breast tumor, so these may be territories where you can make a move.
• Restorative alternatives for women at expanded hazard: For women who have certain hazard components for breast growth, for example, a family history; various restorative alternatives may counteract breast cancer.
• Medications to lessen hazard: For women at expanded danger of breast cancer, medications, for example, tamoxifen and raloxifene, can reduce the hazard. However, these medications can have their own dangers and symptoms.
• Preventive surgery: In case that you have a solid family history of breast cancer, you can talk with your specialist about hereditary testing. This test addresses changes in qualities that increase the danger of breast cancer; for example, the BRCA qualities. In case you have a hereditary change from a family with a transformation, however, have not been tried, you could consider surgery to bring down your danger of tumor.

HIV: QUICK FACTSIntroductionThe human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a subgroup of retrovirus (lentivirus) that causes HIV infection. After a period of time, this infection leads to what is called acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).

Epidemiology

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), from 2010-2015, the estimated rate of HIV infection in all 50 US states decreased from 14.2 per 100,000 population in 2010 to 12.3 per 100,000 population in 2015. In 2015, 39,513 individuals were diagnosed with HIV infection. From 2010 to 2014, the annual number of new HIV infections decreased by 9%.

Virology HIV-1 and HIV-2 are retroviruses in the Retroviridae family, Lentivirus genus. They are enveloped, diploid, single-stranded RNA viruses with a DNA intermediate.Upon entry into the target cell, the viral RNA genome is converted into double-stranded DNA by an enzyme, reverse transcriptase that is transported along with the viral genome in the virus particle. The resulting viral DNA is then imported into the cell nucleus and integrated into the cellular DNA by a virally encoded enzyme, integrase. HIV contains three retroviral genes, namely gag, pol, and env.

• Gag gene: Encodes group-specific antigen; the inner structural proteins
• Pol gene: Encodes polymerase; it also contains integrase and protease
• Env gene: Encodes the viral envelope, the outer structural proteins responsible for cell-type specificity. Glycoprotein 120, the viral envelope protein, binds to the host CD4+molecule

Pathophysiology

HIV infects vital cells in the human immune system, such as helper T cells (specifically CD4+ T cells), macrophages, and dendritic cells and leads to cellular immune deficiency. This results in the development of opportunistic infections and neoplastic processes.

Mode of Transmission
Sexual intercourse: Unprotected sexual intercourse; especially receptive anal intercourse and different sexual partnersContact with or transfer of blood, pre-ejaculate, semen, and vaginal fluids infected with the virus.Spread from an infected mother to her infant through breast milk. An HIV-positive mother can transmit HIV to her baby both during pregnancy and childbirth due to exposure to her blood or vaginal fluid.

Signs and Symptoms There are 3 categories of infection

• Category A: Asymptomatic HIV infection without a history of symptoms or AIDS-defining conditions
• Category B: HIV infection with symptoms that are directly attributable to HIV infection
• Category C: HIV infection with AIDS-defining opportunistic infections

Investigation

A high-sensitivity enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) should be used for screening.

Management

• Start with antiretroviral therapy (ART) in all HIV-infected adults ready to start therapy.
• CD4 count is no longer a criterion for starting the therapy.
• Use of nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors and protease inhibitors.
• For refractory cases, during the failing treatment regimen and before switching therapy, use rapid confirmation, perform resistance testing and reevaluate.

In case you have a concern or query you can always consult an expert & get answers to your questions!

Breast cancer begins when cells in the breast start to get out of control. These cells are mostly in the form of a tumor that can be regularly seen on an x-ray or felt as a lump. The tumor is dangerous (malignant) if the cells attack the surrounding tissues or spread to far off zones in the body. Breast cancer happens mostly in women, yet men can get it, as well.

This is how breast cancer can spread:

• Bosom cancer can spread through the lymph framework
• The lymph framework includes lymph nodes, lymph vessels, and lymph liquid found all throughout the body
• Lymph nodes are little, bean-shaped accumulations of immune system cells that are connected by lymph (or lymphatic) vessels. Lymph vessels resemble little veins, with the exception of that they transport a liquid called lymph (rather than blood) far from the breast
• Lymph contains tissue liquid, waste items, and immune system cells. Breast cancer cells can enter lymph vessels and start to develop into lymph nodes

A large portion of the lymph vessels of the breast deplete into the:

• Lymph nodes under the arm (axillary hubs)
• Lymph nodes around the neck bone (supraclavicular and infraclavicular lymph hubs)
• Lymph nodes inside the neck close to the breast bone (inner mammary lymph hubs)

Following are some of the causes of breast cancer:

• Hormones play a part in creating breast cancer disease; however exactly how this happens is not completely known
• Ordinary breast cells get to be distinctly carcinogenic in view of changes (transformations) in DNA
• Yet, most DNA changes identified with breast cancer are gained in breast cells during a woman’s life as opposed to having been acquired
• Qualities that accelerate cell division are called oncogenes
• Tumor silencer qualities are typical qualities that back off cell division, repair DNA oversights, or advise cells when to bite the dust
• Certain acquired DNA transformations (changes) can drastically increase chances for building up specific growths and are in charge of a large number of tumors that keep running in few families

Some of the treatments of breast cancer include:

• Health alterations: Body weight, physical action, and eating routine are all connected to breast tumor, so these may be territories where you can make a move.
• Restorative alternatives for women at expanded hazard: For women who have certain hazard components for breast growth, for example, a family history; various restorative alternatives may counteract breast cancer.
• Medications to lessen hazard: For women at expanded danger of breast cancer, medications, for example, tamoxifen and raloxifene, can reduce the hazard. However, these medications can have their own dangers and symptoms.
• Preventive surgery: In case that you have a solid family history of breast cancer, you can talk with your specialist about hereditary testing. This test addresses changes in qualities that increase the danger of breast cancer; for example, the BRCA qualities. In case you have a hereditary change from a family with a transformation, however, have not been tried, you could consider surgery to bring down your danger of tumor.

In case you have a concern or query you can always consult an expert & get answers to your questions!

Today, prenatal testing can help pinpoint your unborn child’s risk to a number of genetic conditions. NIPT or non-invasive prenatal testing is a modern form of prenatal testing that does not harm the mother or child. NIPT involves a simple blood test that can be performed as an outpatient procedure in any doctor’s office. Blood for this test is collected from a vein in the mother’s arm. The DNA from this blood sample is then studied in a laboratory to look for signs of abnormalities. These results are them compared to your first-trimester ultrasound results to determine if further testing is required.

There are a number of advantages to this form of testing

1. Highly Accurate: NIPT results are said to be accurate in 99% cases. This clears doubts about chromosomal abnormalities and helps parents to be dealing with problems in their unborn children. For example, NIPT testing can be used to diagnose problems like Down syndrome. NIPT also decreases the need for other forms of invasive prenatal testing.
2. Safe: NIPT is noninvasive and does not harm the health of the baby or the mother. Since it involves only a simple blood test, it does not cause pain or discomfort either. It also has no connection to miscarriages. Pregnant woman above the age of 35 and those who have had an ultrasound showing an increased risk of aneuploidy or those who have a history of trisomy can benefit from this form of pre-natal testing. The only known alternative to this form of testing involves withdrawing DNA samples from the amniotic sac with the help of a needle. This form of testing can result in a miscarriage in rare cases.
3. Comfortable: Unlike prenatal tests that require precision while withdrawing DNA from the amniotic sac, the NIPT requires far less expertise. This makes women much more comfortable undergoing this form of testing as compared to the other.
4. Early Diagnosis: With prenatal testing parents do not have to wait till a baby is born to find out if he or she suffers from any genetic complications. NIPT can be scheduled as early as 10 weeks into the pregnancy and hence gives the parents enough time to prepare themselves to deal with the issue if any.

However, you should remember that NIPT cannot be used to replace diagnostic tests such as amniocentesis. Also, it does not detect all chromosomal abnormalities.

While some couples conceive with ease, conceiving a child can be extremely difficult for others. In cases where a woman is not able to get pregnant despite having regular intercourse in tune with her biological cycle, infertility tests may be suggested to investigate the reason behind this. In most cases, these tests are suggested if a year has gone by without intercourse resulting in a pregnancy. Women may also be said to be infertile, if they cannot carry a foetus to full term.

Infertility can affect both men and women and can be triggered by a number of different reasons. In some cases, it is treatable while in others, alternative ways of having a family may need to be discussed. Hence, it is very important to understand the different types and triggers for infertility and to undergo complete infertility investigations. Some of the common types of infertility investigations are as given below.

1. Blood tests: A blood test of both partners is used to assess the general health of the couple and to identify any health factors that may be impeding fertility.
2. Tests for women: 
   1. Hysterosalpingogram: This is an X ray that can identify if a blockage or any other issue in the fallopian tubes are the cause for infertility.
   2. Pelvic ultrasound: This is used to have a look at the anatomy of the female reproductive system and to check for fibroids.
   3. Laparoscopy / hysteroscopy: This is used to get a clearer picture of the ovaries, uterus and other parts of the reproductive system.
   4. Tracking cycle: Ovulation and the thickness of the uterus lining may also affect infertility, This can be diagnosed by tracking and assessing the menstrual cycle.
3. Tests for men
   1. Semen analysis:This test is used to get an idea of sperm concentration, motility and the appearance of sperm in a man’s semen. In some cases, the semen may not include any sperm cells. In such cases, a follow up investigation may be required to assess if sperm cells are being created in the testicles. This is known as testicular sperm aspiration or a testicular biopsy.
   2. Sperm DNA: The DNA in sperm also plays an important role in fertility. This test is used to assess the sperm DNA integrity and to see how it may affect embryo development and chances of an on-going pregnancy.

Infertility treatment depends on the cause identified by the above tests and hence it is important for both partners to undergo complete testing.

In case you have a concern or query you can always consult an expert & get answers to your questions!

While some couples conceive with ease, conceiving a child can be extremely difficult for others. In cases where a woman is not able to get pregnant despite having regular intercourse in tune with her biological cycle, infertility tests may be suggested to investigate the reason behind this. In most cases, these tests are suggested if a year has gone by without intercourse resulting in a pregnancy. Women may also be said to be infertile, if they cannot carry a foetus to full term.

Infertility can affect both men and women and can be triggered by a number of different reasons. In some cases, it is treatable while in others, alternative ways of having a family may need to be discussed. Hence, it is very important to understand the different types and triggers for infertility and to undergo complete infertility investigations. Some of the common types of infertility investigations are as given below.

1. Blood tests: A blood test of both partners is used to assess the general health of the couple and to identify any health factors that may be impeding fertility.
2. Tests for women: 
   1. Hysterosalpingogram: This is an X ray that can identify if a blockage or any other issue in the fallopian tubes are the cause for infertility.
   2. Pelvic ultrasound: This is used to have a look at the anatomy of the female reproductive system and to check for fibroids.
   3. Laparoscopy / hysteroscopy: This is used to get a clearer picture of the ovaries, uterus and other parts of the reproductive system.
   4. Tracking cycle: Ovulation and the thickness of the uterus lining may also affect infertility, This can be diagnosed by tracking and assessing the menstrual cycle.
3. Tests for men
   1. Semen analysis:This test is used to get an idea of sperm concentration, motility and the appearance of sperm in a man’s semen. In some cases, the semen may not include any sperm cells. In such cases, a follow up investigation may be required to assess if sperm cells are being created in the testicles. This is known as testicular sperm aspiration or a testicular biopsy.
   2. Sperm DNA: The DNA in sperm also plays an important role in fertility. This test is used to assess the sperm DNA integrity and to see how it may affect embryo development and chances of an on-going pregnancy.

Infertility treatment depends on the cause identified by the above tests and hence it is important for both partners to undergo complete testing.