Toxoplasma DNA, PCr Tips

Diseases which are caused by some sort of genetic mutations in the mitochondria, can be quite deadly. This is the reason why Mitochondrial Replacement Therapy, also known as Three-Person IVF is being seen as a much more desired option for those women, who carry mitochondrial mutations.

Almost all the genes in a cell remain trapped in the nucleus but a small fraction of them remain present in the mitochondria as well. During the fertilisation of eggs, the genes in the egg’s nucleus get combined with the genes in the nucleus of the sperm, which in turn creates a new cell. On the other hand, mitochondrial genes are involved in this mixing. Rather they are passed on from mother to child.

The main reason behind three-person IVF is to help find a way, so that the mitochondrial genes can be replaced in an affected cell of the egg prior to the time they get passed on to the child. This is carried out when the egg cell of the donor gets acquired and the nucleus is removed from the cell, hence leaving the cell with healthy mitochondria. After that, the mother’s nucleus, which stays unaffected, is removed and gets placed in the donor’s egg cell, thereby creating an egg cell which must contain healthy genes not only in the nucleus but also in the mitochondria.

Genes Are Complex in Nature

• Genes communicate with one another. Cells get engaged in a variety of complex processes like division of cells or respiration, which are highly unlikely to be performed only by single genes acting in an isolated manner. So a network of genes works together, with each one making a contribution of certain particular components.
• Genes tend to be variable in nature, which basically means that no two genomes are similar. Due to this reason, the result of a typical pair of genes interacting with one another will at times be different for different individuals. This is the dark side of genetics, which has not been studied in a comprehensive manner and experts are not aware of exactly how widespread this might be.
• Experts call this type of effect as Epistasis, which can occur between individual genes, between two or more sets of genes or even between whole genomes. The one occurring between whole genomes, has relevance to discuss about the safety and ethics of MRT. The reason is that, when a mitochondrial genome from a donor replaces the affected mitochondria, the parents’ nuclear DNA must communicate with a completely new genomic partner. The ethical implications related to the epistasis getting changed between nuclear DNA and mitochondrial have thus far been completely ignored.

Ethics Comes First
The review of the ethics related to MRT or Three-Person IVF came up with the conclusion that if the procedure was safe, then it could be considered as ethical. In other words, they concluded that if the trials carried out on humans showed that the treatment undertaken was safe, then it could also be considered as ethical as well.

It is as important for the man as it is for the woman to undergo certain tests before the IVF cycle is started. Fertility is not only an issue for a woman, but it also might be for the man in question. There are certain tests that need to be conducted on men before they can gear up for IVF:

1. Semen Analysis: One of the most important tests for male infertility is semen analysis. Sometimes, a man may be completely healthy, but his sperm production could be of poor quality. Semen analysis is done to provide an accurate evaluation of sperm number, the ability to move (motility), size and shape (morphology), as well as the consistency and volume of the sample collected.

2. Binding Test: Sometimes agglutination occurs where the sperms might stick to each other by their heads or tails. Sperm antibodies might cause this problem. The IVF treatment's success might be compromised if this happens. A simple binding test is done to determine this.

3. Trial Wash: This is also known as sperm wash. It is mostly done to remove chemicals from the sperm. Not doing a sperm wash might end up affecting the later stages of the IVF treatment. In this process, the misshapen and immotile sperm is separated so a clean sample of motile and healthy sperm can be collected.

4. TUNEL Assay: Since sperms build up about half of a child's genetic makeup, a TUNEL Assay or 'sperm DNA test' is required. This test is done to measure the sperm population that have fragmented DNA. Negative impacts on genetics can hamper the success of the fertility treatment.

TUNEL Assay is usually recommended to men with:

• Leukocytes detected by the sperm analysis
• Age approaching 50
• A history of diabetes II type or prostatitis
• Exposure to chemicals or prolonged heat at workplaces

5. Screening for Infectious Diseases: This test is done for both the partners to check for diseases like AIDS, Hepatitis C, and so on.

It is as important for the man as it is for the woman to undergo certain tests before the IVF cycle is started. Fertility is not only an issue for a woman, but it also might be for the man in question. There are certain tests that need to be conducted on men before they can gear up for IVF:

1. Semen Analysis: One of the most important tests for male infertility is semen analysis. Sometimes, a man may be completely healthy, but his sperm production could be of poor quality. Semen analysis is done to provide an accurate evaluation of sperm number, the ability to move (motility), size and shape (morphology), as well as the consistency and volume of the sample collected.

2. Binding Test: Sometimes agglutination occurs where the sperms might stick to each other by their heads or tails. Sperm antibodies might cause this problem. The IVF treatment's success might be compromised if this happens. A simple binding test is done to determine this.

3. Trial Wash: This is also known as sperm wash. It is mostly done to remove chemicals from the sperm. Not doing a sperm wash might end up affecting the later stages of the IVF treatment. In this process, the misshapen and immotile sperm is separated so a clean sample of motile and healthy sperm can be collected.

4. TUNEL Assay: Since sperms build up about half of a child's genetic makeup, a TUNEL Assay or 'sperm DNA test' is required. This test is done to measure the sperm population that have fragmented DNA. Negative impacts on genetics can hamper the success of the fertility treatment.

TUNEL Assay is usually recommended to men with:

• Leukocytes detected by the sperm analysis
• Age approaching 50
• A history of diabetes II type or prostatitis
• Exposure to chemicals or prolonged heat at workplaces

5. Screening for Infectious Diseases: This test is done for both the partners to check for diseases like AIDS, Hepatitis C, and so on.

Melanoma is a condition which mainly indicates a severe malfunction of the melanocytes or the melanin-producing cells of the body. These cells are responsible for giving you your skin colour, tone and complexion. Usually, a person suffering from melanoma will have many normal and irregular moles as well as melanoma in the eye and digestive tracts too.

Some general facts on melanoma are mentioned below:

1. Melanoma is common in young women and causes many deaths.

2. More than one million new instances of skin cancer or melanoma are analyzed every year.

3. There has been a 2000% increase in the rate of melanoma since the year 1930. One out of fifty get affected by this cancer.

4. There has been a high rise in the rate of melanoma from 1970 to 2008. There has been an 800% increase in young women and 400% increase in case of similar-aged men.

5. Early recognition makes melanoma treatable. It is screened for growth very minimally.

Primary causes Melanoma may be caused primarily due to these causes:

The most primary cause of melanoma is ultraviolet light (UV) in people with a low level of skin pigment. The UV light might be from either the sun or from different sources, for example, tanning devices. Around 25% of cases occur from or in the form of moles.

The individuals who work on airplanes seem to have an expanded danger, due to more contact with UV rays.

Ultraviolet UV light of wavelengths between 315 - 280 nm from the sun react with the skin cell DNA and result in a kind of direct DNA harm called cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs).

In order to stay away or avoid melanoma, you should:

1. Avoid the sun at peak hours.

2. Examine your skin at times for some kind of change.

3. Keep away from tanning salons.Melanoma is a dangerous form of cancer and causes a lot of deaths. You should stay away from anything that causes melanoma.

Fruits are a superfood category of their own. They are the powerhouse of minerals, vitamins and antioxidants and an excellent contribution to your diet. 

Here are ten fruits you should be eating daily:

1. Apples - There is a reason why an apple a day keeps the doctor away. Apples are filled with antioxidants, soluble and insoluble fibre and quercetin. Antioxidants boost your immunity and the fibre provides you with energy and maintains a healthy bowel, while quercetin has anti-allergy and antihistamine (compounds which curb the effects of histamine, primarily used to treat allergies) properties.
    
2. Grapes - Grapes contain antioxidant named resveratrol, which prevents heart diseases and premature ageing of your cells. In addition, they are also great sources of folate and vitamin B6, C and A which contribute to a healthier immune system.
    
3. Bananas - Bananas have low sodium and high potassium levels. Thus, they are extremely beneficial in maintaining blood pressure and preventing strokes. Bananas also contain protease inhibitors, which prevent stomach ulcers (protease is a digestive enzyme that produces acid).
    
4. Strawberries - Strawberries might be small, but they do pack a lot of nutrients! A handful of strawberries daily can prevent diabetes type 2, inflammations and heart disease. They are also rich in antioxidants and vitamin C.
    
5. Papaya - Papayas contain a substance called ‘papain’ which is an incredible digestive stimulant. They also contain large amounts of folate, which helps in proper DNA repair and synthesis.
   
6. Oranges - Oranges provide you with vitamin C and potassium, which are essential for enhanced muscle and digestive functions. The membrane between orange segments contains hesperidin, which has been proven to reduce cholesterol.
    
7. Kiwi - Kiwi contains more vitamin C than oranges which grants them the ability to prevent DNA damage and also helps reduce risks of developing cataracts.
    
8. Blueberries - Blueberries are a great source of antioxidants which aid in fighting cancer and macular degeneration (an eye disease which results in vision loss). They also contain compounds that protect you from urinary tract infections.
    
9. Lemon - Lemons contain citric acid, which effectively lowers cholesterol and cuts down on body fat. Citric acid is also an excellent digestive stimulant. Also, the refreshing scent of lemons reduces anxiety, nervousness and fatigue.
    
10. Grapefruit - Grapefruit is an excellent appetite suppressant, which cuts down on your cravings. It also contains a soluble fibre named ‘pectin’, which lessens the development of atherosclerosis (build-up of cholesterol and fats on the walls of the artery). However, refrain from consuming grapefruit if you are on prescription medications.

Fruits are a superfood category of their own. They are the powerhouse of minerals, vitamins and antioxidants and an excellent contribution to your diet. Here are ten fruits you should be eating daily:

1. Apples: There is a reason why an apple a day keeps the doctor away. Apples are filled with antioxidants, soluble and insoluble fibre and quercetin. Antioxidants boost your immunity and the fibre provides you with energy and maintains a healthy bowel, while quercetin has anti-allergy and antihistamine (compounds which curb the effects of histamine, primarily used to treat allergies) properties.
2. Grapes: Grapes contain an antioxidant named resveratrol, which prevents heart diseases and premature aging of your cells. In addition, they are also great sources of folate and vitamin B6, C and A which contribute to a healthier immune system.
3. Bananas: Bananas have low sodium and high potassium levels. Thus, they are extremely beneficial in maintaining blood pressure and preventing strokes. Bananas also contain protease inhibitors, which prevent stomach ulcers (protease is a digestive enzyme that produces acid).
4. Strawberries: Strawberries might be small, but they do pack a lot of nutrients! A handful of strawberries daily can prevent diabetes type 2, inflammations and heart disease. They are also rich in antioxidants and vitamin C.
5. Papaya: Papayas contain a substance called ‘papain’ which is an incredible digestive stimulant. They also contain large amounts of folate, which helps in proper DNA repair and synthesis.
6. Oranges: Oranges provide you with vitamin C and potassium, which are essential for enhanced muscle and digestive functions. The membrane between orange segments contains hesperidin, which has been proven to reduce cholesterol.
7. Kiwi: Kiwi contains more vitamin C than oranges which grants them the ability to prevent DNA damage and also helps reduce risks of developing cataracts.
8. Blueberries: Blueberries are a great source of antioxidants which aid in fighting cancer and macular degeneration (an eye disease which results in vision loss). They also contain compounds that protect you from urinary tract infections.
9. Lemon: Lemons contain citric acid, which effectively lowers cholesterol and cuts down on body fat. Citric acid is also an excellent digestive stimulant. Also, the refreshing scent of lemons reduces anxiety, nervousness and fatigue.
10. Grapefruit: Grapefruit is an excellent appetite suppressant, which cuts down on your cravings. It also contains a soluble fibre named ‘pectin’, which lessens the development of atherosclerosis (build-up of cholesterol and fats on the walls of the artery). However, refrain from consuming grapefruit if you are on prescription medications.

In case you have a concern or query you can always consult an expert & get answers to your questions!

Melanoma, also referred to as malignant melanoma, is a type of cancer. It evolves from the color or pigment containing cells known as melanocytes. Melanomas normally happen in the skin, yet may once in a while it may happen in the mouth, guts, or eyes as well. In women, it generally happens in the legs, while in men they are most regularly on the back. Sometime a mole may also raise your concern by increasing in size, developing abnormal edges, a change of color or itching and irritability. This may also prompt breakdown of the skin.

Some general facts on melanoma are mentioned below:
1. More than one million new instances of skin cancer or melanoma are analyzed every year.
2. There has been a 2000% increase in rate of melanoma since the year 1930. One out of fifty get affected by this cancer.
3. This is common in young women and causes many deaths.
4. Women below the age of forty are at more risk of getting melanoma than any other kind of cancer such as breast cancer.
5. There has been a high rise in the rate of melanoma from 1970 to 2008. There has been an 800% increase in young women and 400% increase in case of similar aged men.

Primary causes:
Melanomia may be caused primarily due to these causes:

1. The most primary cause of melanoma is ultraviolet light (UV) in people with a low level of skin pigment. The UV light might be from either the sun or from different sources, for example, tanning devices. Around 25% of cases occur from or in the form of moles. 
2. Those with numerous moles, presence of the disease in family members and who have poor immunity are at more noteworthy risk to get melanoma. Various uncommon hereditary defects, such as xeroderma pigmentosum increase the risk of melanoma.
3. The individuals who work on airplanes seem to have an expanded danger, due to more contact with UV rays.
4. Ultraviolet UVB light of wavelengths between 315 - 280 nm from the sun react with the skin cell DNA and result in a kind of direct DNA harm called cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs). 

In order to stay away or avoid melanoma, you should:

1. Spend less time in direct sunlight and should seek shade.
2. Avoid the sun at peak hours.
3. Examine your skin at times for some kind of change.
4. Keep away from tanning salons.

Melanoma is a dangerous form of cancer and causes a lot of deaths. You should stay away from anything that causes melanoma.

Every living thing goes through a cycle of birth, growth, development, aging, and based on its lifespan, die. Be it an insect with a lifespan of few hours to the giant tortoise who live for more than 150 years. Now what causes aging has been debated about widely. It is a combination of gradual wear and tear of the body combined with gradually declining pace of replacement of the worn out/missing parts. When younger, the body's ability to replace lost skin or bone is strong and it gradually declines with age.

Recent studies have shown that there is a strong genetic component related with aging. We all have noticed how not everybody ages at the same pace, while some continue to look younger than their biological age, the reverse is also true. Intrigued by this finding, a lot of research have gone into what contributes to aging. It has been discovered that a lot of aging factors are inherited, especially from the mother.

Now, a little bit of cellular details:

There is a part of the cell that is called mitochondria, which is the energy production unit within each cell. It has been discovered that the DNA of the mitochondria which is mDNA has a lot to do with how a person ages, specifically what is inherited from the mother. If this has undergone mutation, the inherited mutated DNA accelerates the aging process.

To add to this, there is also a lot of research studying the details of how young genes look different from old genes. The idea is to study this difference and then find out the difference and then see how we can make the older ones look more like the younger ones. This will indirectly reduce the aged look and produce a younger outlook.

Since, the most obvious and apparent aging is seen on the skin, research is being conducted how the cellular membranes called aquaporins act. These are important for regulation of water movement to and from the cell. It is well known that younger skin is more hydrated compared to older skin, and ways are being identified to keep the older skin more hydrated and thereby produce a younger look.

There is also a lot of correlation between nutrition and environmental factors and the overall aging process. Genetic mutations are produced by these factors which also lead to accelerated aging.

While everybody tries to maintain the younger look, aging is something inevitable. While we can do a lot of things by modifying our lifestyle and with chemical support, it cannot be completely halted. While we can try to manage the diseases related to old age, aging may not be something that can be stopped completely.

The human body requires the basic nutrients for its normal functioning which are carbohydrates, fats and proteins. However, there are certain vital vitamins and minerals too, that are equally important because these help in maintaining the proper health of a human body in various ways. One such vitamin is Vitamin B complex of which, there is a crucial vitamin known as Vitamin B12 or scientifically called as Cobalamin.

Functions of Vitamin B12: Vitamin B12 plays a major role by controlling several factors of the human body. These are necessary for the body to run well and stay healthy. Some of the key functions of Vitamin B12 are listed below:

1. It is responsible for the conversion of raw carbohydrate matter that enters into the body in the form of food into glucose that is the driving energy for the body. Therefore, in a way it helps to keep the continuity of energy production in the human body and its deficiency, therefore, can lead to fatigue or weakness.
2. Every single nature of human cells is related to the DNA and RNA that define the genetics and hereditary factors of a human body. Vitamin B12 assists in the creation of this DNA and RNA.
3. Vitamin B12 also helps in the production of nerve cells in the human body by maintaining the covering of the nerve cells or neurones known as the myelin sheaths. This helps to free the body from the reach of toxins and free radicals that can be very harmful to the human body. Hence, any shortage of Vitamin B12 can damage the nerve cells in a considerable manner.
4. The bones of the human body need Vitamin B12 as well and any deficiency of Vitamin B12 can cause osteoporosis and other bone issues.
5. Vitamin B12 in association with another vitamin known as Vitamin B9 (folate or folic acid) helps in the manufacture of red blood cells that help in impressive iron functioning, which is the main oxygen carrier of the human blood. Quite evidently, its deficiency can lead to shortness of breath and other breathing disorders.
6. Even heart requires an adequate amount of Vitamin B12 along with Vitamin B6 and Vitamin B9 so that appropriate levels of amino acid named homocysteine are produced that is a deciding factor in heart diseases.
7. Vitamin B12 is an essential component affecting the brain health too, and any deficiency of Vitamin B12 can often lead to various brain disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease and the like.

In fact, Vitamin B12 has also been found to regulate mood and emotions of humans. Above all, Vitamin B12 is vital for keeping an individual happy and healthy by revitalising the body cells and making him or her feel youthful and vibrant all the time.

Melanoma is a condition which mainly indicates a severe malfunction of the melanocytes or the melanin producing cells of the body. These cells are responsible for giving you your skin colour, tone and complexion. Usually, a person suffering from melanoma will have many normal and irregular moles as well as melanoma in the eye and digestive tracts too.

Some general facts on melanoma are mentioned below:

1. Melanoma is common in young women and causes many deaths.

2. More than one million new instances of skin cancer or melanoma are analyzed every year.

3. There has been a 2000% increase in rate of melanoma since the year 1930. One out of fifty get affected by this cancer.

4. There has been a high rise in the rate of melanoma from 1970 to 2008. There has been an 800% increase in young women and 400% increase in case of similar aged men.

5. Early recognition makes melanoma treatable. It is screened for growth very minimally.

Primary causes Melanoma may be caused primarily due to these causes:

The most primary cause of melanoma is ultraviolet light (UV) in people with a low level of skin pigment. The UV light might be from either the sun or from different sources, for example, tanning devices. Around 25% of cases occur from or in the form of moles.

The individuals who work on airplanes seem to have an expanded danger, due to more contact with UV rays.

Ultraviolet UV light of wavelengths between 315 - 280 nm from the sun react with the skin cell DNA and result in a kind of direct DNA harm called cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs).

In order to stay away or avoid melanoma, you should:

1. Avoid the sun at peak hours.

2. Examine your skin at times for some kind of change.

3. Keep away from tanning salons. Melanoma is a dangerous form of cancer and causes a lot of deaths. You should stay away from anything that causes melanoma. If you wish to discuss about any specific problem, you can consult a doctor and ask a free question.